Journal of Dracula Studies12 (2010)
[Nicole Myoshi Rabin is a PhD student in the English
Department at the University of Hawai’i at Manoa. She received her M.A.
from Clark University in Worcester, MA. Her research interests include
popular culture, multiracial/mixed-race studies, and contemporary ethnic literature
of the U.S. ]
In
the Western consciousness there has been a long tradition of the associations
between race and evil. According to
Celia R. Daileader, in her Introduction to Racism, Misogyny, and the Othello
Myth: Inter-racial Couples from Shakespeare to Spike Lee, “Before black men
were lynched for alleged sex with white women, white women were burned alive
for alleged sex with a devil described as black” (1). Daileader calls attention to the historical
relationship between blackness, sex, and evil that predates the literal
transmission of this discourse into “race relations.” Over time this
relationship has found its way into many racist fantasies, particularly those
manifested within the stories of the horror genre—including vampire tales. Although race has only begun to be theorized
in relation to Dracula, one of the most well known vampire novels
published in 1897, there has been some important recent work theorizing the
Count within Homi Bhabha’s category of the “not quite/not white” (Daileader
97). As John Allen Stevenson notes, “the novel [Dracula] insistently—indeed,
obsessively—defines the vampire not as a monstrous father but as a foreigner,
as someone who threatens and terrifies precisely because he is an outsider”
(139). Dracula, the Romanian Count, is
seen in opposition to the rest of the British characters—including the main
object of his desire, Mina. The
predatory sexual threat of Dracula is a common racist fantasy where racialized
men exude “predatory sexual desire” that “endangers white womanhood and
consequently threatens the racial purity of white [American] society”
(Hamako). In most instances, this threat
to racial purity manifests itself in the fear of clear racial miscegenation and
a necessary drive to eradicate the one attempting to perform this racial
contamination—the vampire.
Over
the past two years there has been a resurgence of vampire stories in U.S.
popular culture. These new vampire stories conveyed on-screen —True Blood,
The Vampire Diaries, and Twilight—promote specific ideologies
about race, class, and gender that are specific to our cultural moment. In
“Color Blindness: An Obstacle to Racial Justice?” Charles A. Gallagher states
that: “since the mid-1990s there has been a change in the way race, race
relations, and racial hierarchy have been depicted in the mass media…the media
now provides Americans with an almost endless supply of overt and coded
depictions of a multiracial, multicultural society that has finally transcended
the problem of race” (109). As examples
of contemporary media, these new vampire shows also promote a society “beyond”
race; so, with the historical tradition between race and vampires, what happens
when the victims of vampires—in these new vampire tales—are no longer racially
homogenous? Can the vampire still be
read as racially other? I argue that the
vampire of these contemporary stories actually becomes a symbol of multiracial
identity as it is seen within the multicultural discourse that pervades American
popular consciousness. For the purpose
of this paper, I will be focusing specifically on issues of race and sexuality
(only as they are concerned with racial purity) in the first season of HBO’s
series True Blood—encapsulated within the first two episodes, “Strange
Love” and “The First Taste.” While the
series deals with a greater range of issues—gay rights, American slavery,
terrorism, war, religion, etc.—these issues remain outside the scope of this
particular paper. I hope that these
issues will be theorized in subsequent work on the series, but for this paper I
will have to limit my consideration to the ways in which these beginning
episodes of True Blood portrays a multicultural society on screen that
undercuts the reality of still pervasive racist currents in our own society;
how the show creates a multiracial identity that is at once feared and
championed within the American society; and, how the show while depicting
multiculturalism actually works to subtly critique this ideology.
As
an instance of contemporary media, True Blood presents its audience with
a multicultural, pluralist society.
According to Naomi Zack in “American Mixed Race: The United States 2000
Census and Related Issues,” there are two different models of pluralism that
developed in the United States. The first model, ethnic pluralism, “was based
on a melting-pot ideal of equality and nondiscrimination in public life”
(21). While this model encouraged an
assimilationist approach to ethnicity, another model of pluralism “driven by
race-based egalitarian projects beginning in the 1960s” also developed where
groups “argued for the right to retain and have their nonwhite identities as
fully functional in civic and public life” (21). These two models have combined to form our
current multicultural society by developing both a “public neutrality of ethnic
identity” and an emphasis on “public distinctiveness of racial identity”
(21). Within these politics of
multiculturalism, differences are accepted and even desired, but economic,
social, and political inequalities become masked by this pluralist
equality. The society of the show is
encapsulated within the local bar Merlotte’s in the fictional town of Bon
Temps, where the entire cast of main characters work, and are joined daily by all
the other locals in their community.
This society includes Caucasian and African American characters of
varying social classes, both heterosexual and openly homosexual. All the
characters are friends despite their racial, class, and sexual differences; the
society of the Bon Temps epitomizes the politics of multiculturalism where
differences are accepted as a means for maintaining the status quo. In
conjunction with the politics of multiculturalism comes the link between the
multiracial phenomenon and post-race ideology/color blindness: multiracials and
interracial marriage are used as examples of having reached this idyllic state
beyond race (Daniel 125, Gallagher 105).
In this type of society, racial injustices and inequality are thought
not to exist because the dominant racial ideology of “color-blindness” gives
the illusion that racial comity and egalitarian inclusion are not only
imminent, but already in place (Daniel 126). In this way, True Blood’s
presentation of a multicultural society works to undercut the prevalence of
racial injustice that still exists in mainstream American society.
Despite
the picture of Bon Temps as an inclusive multicultural society where multiple
races live harmoniously with each other, race remains at the forefront of
ideological issues presented through the show with its concern over blood
purity. The characters’, and show’s,
preoccupation with blood and lineage works against the show’s presentation of
multiculturalism critiquing a post-race ideology. From the very beginning the show’s title, True
Blood, declares the relevance of blood purity to its viewers, and
immediately begs the question as to whose blood is true or what blood is
true? The term “true” has many
significations. According to the Oxford English Dictionary “true” is defined
as: “constant, reliable, sure; honest, upright, virtuous” (OED). While it may seem that these definitions
pertain more to morality than race, there is also another definition that
originates with Darwin: “in agreement with the ancestral type; without
variation: in phr: to breed true” (OED).
In this latter definition, the connection of the term “true” to lineage
and purity is made clear in the homonym: true-bred. The definitions of “true” become linked as we
ask: do only true breeds have moral blood? Although race is considered a
fiction with no biological basis, according to Naomi Zack in the Preface to Mixing
It Up: Multiracial Subjects, “race has been a totalizing fiction…people are
supposed to belong to certain races in a way that characterizes them as whole
persons. The taxonomy of race has
divided humankind into fictive subspecies.”
In light of Zack’s fictive whole-race subspecies, the question supposed
from the show’s title—concerning the morality of true-breeds—brings multiracial
issues to the foreground; in multicultural societies people of mixed blood are
often considered un-whole in a dominant discourse of monoracial
identification. The notion of “true
blood” presents blood purity as one of the show’s major preoccupations; and
this concern works to subtly critique pluralist, post-race ideologies, where
multiraciality is both feared as a threat to racial purity and championed for
embodying its ideals.
In
conjunction with blood purity comes the issue of miscegenation. The vampire in True Blood becomes a
symbol of this multiraciality. Since
race is not based in biological difference, there has been a long tradition of
creating and maintaining discursive boundaries between the constructed races
(Ferber 46). In our contemporary multicultural society, issues of miscegenation
no longer fall solely on the black/white line, but all monoracial categories
must now be protected. As part of the
maintenance of these monoracial boundaries comes the necessity to delimit
specific characteristics as to what these monoraces are not (mixes) (Ferber
47). The main point in defining the difference, in creating the boundary,
between the races within True Blood—humans and vampires—is the fact that
vampires, and not humans, drink blood; the vampires are literally mixing blood
within their bodies like multiracials. As Daileader states about Dracula, “that
in speaking of the blood in his veins he alludes not only to his ancestors, but
to his victims. And indeed, vampirism
itself, in addition to the more obvious figuration of sexual intercourse, seems
the perfect metaphor for miscegenation” (97).
What Daileader suggests about Dracula’s “impurity” is also suggested
about Bill (played by Stephen Moyer), the main vampire in Bon Temps when Tara
(played by Rutina Wesley) one of the African American characters, states: “You
don’t know how many people he’s sucked the blood out of over the last, how ever
many, centuries he’s been alive” (“Strange Love”). Bill, like Dracula, becomes a literal
embodiment of the amalgamation of blood—a symbol for multiracialism.
As
a symbol of multiraciality, the vampires are depicted as having to navigate
issues created in a dominant discourse of monoracial identification, such as
passing. In opposition to the human, “Mixed-race people are seen as inferior, and
almost inhuman” (Ferber 53). We learn
early on in the first episode “Strange Love” that vampires are held in a
position of the subordinate race. A
vampire advocate tells Bill Maher, “We’re citizens. We pay taxes.
We deserve basic human rights just like everyone else.” According to
Werner Sollors, in Neither Black nor White Yet Both, “passing is found
in every race situation where the subordinate race is held in disesteem…passing
oneself off as a human person with all the rights and privileges thereof” (248). In American society, the tradition of passing
originated with slavery and the One-Drop-Rule where mixed race (black and
white) slaves would pass themselves off as white in order to escape the harsh
realities of slavery. Similar to real
race relations in American society, in True Blood passing becomes a
means by which vampires can attempt to enjoy the same rights as their human
counterparts. The Vampire League advocate states, “Now that the Japanese have
perfected synthetic blood…there is no reason for anyone to fear us…we just want
to be part of mainstream society” (“Strange Love”). The advocate makes clear that the main reason
for humans to fear vampires, the defining line of the boundary between these
races—that vampires would drink human’s blood—was their main point of
difference; but, that this difference is no longer an issue because the
synthetic blood allows vampires to forgo this need and “pass” in the mainstream
human society. In this traditional definition,
Bill fits the model of passing as he disassociates himself from the subordinate
race—by literally giving up blood—in order to be a part of the human mainstream
and enjoy the “rights and privileges thereof.”
Passing
in a multicultural society must be rethought in the “real” world, however. The very terms of passing are redefined, as
multiracials who can legitimately claim access to multiple racial groups that
are no longer legally subordinate to each other, and are forced to pass and fit
within the boundaries of the recognized essentialist racial categories
depending on specific situations. Like
multiracials in American society, in True Blood, the vampires’
subordination is provisional, since vampires actually do hold physical power
over the life and death of humans; and, in this sense they could legitimately
overtake humanity. With this
reconsideration of the power dynamics in the human/vampire relationship, the
more contemporary sense of passing can be considered in the fictional world of True
Blood. The vampire—who has access to
both human and vampiric lineage (where subordination is situationally
contingent)—becomes more symbolic of multiracial passing where Bill must choose
to assert one lineage over the other. The vampire inhabits both the traditional
and more contemporary notions of passing, demonstrating the ways in which the
vampire can be seen as a symbol of multiraciality both in its past and its
present. In this way, True Blood
provides a critique of passing, as the vampire (the multiracial) must literally
give up blood and part of his lineage in order to claim a whole identity
within the mainstream.
As
a symbol of multiraciality, vampires are not only forced to “pass,” but are
also highly feared within the society. As Abby L. Ferber points out in
“Defending the Creation of Whiteness: White Supremacy and the Threat of
Interracial Sexuality,” “mixed-race people are far more dangerous than other
nonwhites. Because interracial sexuality
threatens the borders of white identity, mixed-race people become the living
embodiment of that threat… mixed-race people signal the instability and
permeability of racial boundaries; the regulation of interracial sexuality is
required in order to secure the borders” (54).
Ferber’s point about the maintenance of white supremacy is directly
linked to the policing of these essentialist racial categories because in the
discourse of multiculturalism the monoracial categories are accepted and
subsumed as long as white power is maintained through racial purity. With the growing population of multiracials
in our contemporary society, maintaining white power becomes increasingly
difficult because multiracials cannot easily be determined as non-white. This
issue of policing the boundaries of essentialism and whiteness, against the
threat of multiracials, is crucial in understanding how True Blood
presents vampires, and thus multiraciality, as the ultimate threat.
Vampire
Bill, along with the other vampires in the show, is highly feared in Bon
Temps. Bill’s first introduction to the
show’s viewers in “Strange Love” is also his first introduction to the local
community. He enters the bar as Tara
says, “Do you know how many people are having sex with vampires these days? And some times those people disappear.” Tara’s statement brings together the fear of
sexuality and race, as sex with the “other” can lead to a literal
“disappearance;” but, this disappearance is also metaphoric and racial—to have
sex with the multiracial “other” is to risk the disappearance of racial purity.
It is important to note that Tara, one of the African American characters, is
the one to make the connection between sex and racial disappearance; her
minority status in the dominant discourse of race subverts the historical
tradition of Caucasians fearing black/white miscegenation as a means for
protecting their own racial power. As
Tara makes the declaration against vampires, it positions African Americans and
Caucasians in multiracial solidarity against the vampires promoting the
post-race ideology that disassociates the viewer from the realities of racial
injustice. Tara’s claim clearly marks not just interracial sex, but
specifically sex with the multiracial as the ultimate threat to the
disappearance of racial purity for all essentialist racial categories.
The
fear of the multiracial, Bill, is most obviously manifested in the desire to
police his interracial relationship with the symbol of white womanhood, Sookie
(played by Anna Paquin). Sookie, the
main female character, is blonde, white, telepathic, and presented as
virginally pure. In the episode “Strange Love” we learn about Sookie’s purity
through her first interactions on screen.
The audience sees Sookie, wearing a white t-shirt (and she continues to
be shown in white for almost the entirety of the show’s season); the associations between the color white and
purity have a long tradition in Western consciousness, and this association is
clearly used by the director in presenting Sookie in white clothes. In the bar,
the head chef Lafayette says to Sookie, “They [men] ain’t scared of you
hunny-child. They scared of what’s
between your legs.” Sookie responds quickly in a tone of disapproval,
“Lafayette, that’s nasty talk. I won’t
listen to that.” As Lafayette continues
to make sexual remarks, the other two waitresses (Dawn and Arlene) make
sexually suggestive remarks back, waving their asses and pushing their breasts
together. As Sookie watches her three
co-workers, her face is shown in a look of horror and disgust directly linked
to their sexual interactions. Sookie’s
comment to Lafayette and her disgust over the others’ sexuality positions her
in opposition to them as pure of sexual perversions. She later on makes more direct claims about
her virginity: “I have no sex life.”
While these interactions set Sookie up as virginally pure, her whiteness
is directly linked to purity in more than just a sexual sense.
Along
with her sexuality, Sookie’s purity is also linked to the “whiteness” of her
race. The audience learns from her
grandmother in the second episode, “The First Taste,” that Sookie is a
“descendant of the glorious dead,” a group of white Americans who trace their
lineage back to white men who fought for the Confederates in the Civil War. Her
pure “whiteness” is further linked to her lineage through her telepathic
abilities. Her grandmother tells Sookie
that her grandfather also “knew” things about other people (“The First
Taste”). In her discussion of white women in the horror genre, Daileader
notes, “This whiteness is, moreover, always symbolically linked to her
necessary death—as a harbinger and sign of fatal illness, and/or the signifier
of her other-worldly nature, her status as one…’above or apart from the earth’”
(79). For Sookie, her telepathic
ability, linked to her pure “white” lineage, sets her “above” and “apart” from
the rest of her multicultural community; and, it is this otherworldliness that
makes her the most necessary object of protection. This critical need to protect Sookie is
directly tied to the fact that her whiteness will also ultimately be the link
to her death (at least the death of her racial purity). In this sense, Sookie as a symbol of both
racial and sexual purity must be protected by the pluralist, multicultural
society against the multiracial threat.
As
a symbol of racial and sexual purity, Sookie must be protected by the
multicultural society from racial contamination or dilution. In order to protect her, the society must
work to police her sex with the multiracial vampire. In historical racist fantasies, “the fate of
the [white] race hinges upon the white woman’s sexual and reproductive acts”
(Ferber 53). After Bill has been
introduced to Sookie in the first episode, Tara says to the Caucasian bar owner
Sam, “I could help you keep an eye on Sookie.
Did you see the way she was looking at that vampire?” Tara and Sam form an alliance to police
Sookie’s sexuality against the vampire, demonstrating how the pluralist, multicultural
society of the town is actually protecting racial purity form the multiracial
contaminant. Since African Americans and
Caucasians stand in solidarity in protecting Sookie from interracial sex with
the vampire, the “fate” of all essentialist racial categories can be
said to “hinge” upon Sookie’s “sexual and reproductive acts.” Throughout
the first two episodes, and the rest of the season, Sookie’s relationship with
the vampire is closely monitored and policed by the members of her
community. During one scene, where Bill
and Sookie are shown holding hands, Sookie says, “Do you realize that every
person in this establishment is staring at us?”
Bill responds by saying, “They’re staring because I am a vampire and you
are mortal.” While Sookie’s comment
makes the audience aware of the community’s watchful monitoring, Bill’s
response links the community’s visual policing to the threat of the interracial
relationship between Sookie and Bill—a vampire and a human. In this scene, the audience is made aware of
the multicultural community’s desire/need to monitor Sookie and Bill, since the
fate of racial essentialism seems to be resting upon her sexual and
reproductive acts.
While
multiracials are feared for their threat to the racial purity of essentialist
racial categories, they are also championed as symbols of a melting-pot form of
pluralism—a sort of post-race ideology.
According to SanSan Kwan and Kenneth Spears in their Introduction to Mixing
It Up: Multiracial Subjects, “in contrast to the history of oppression and
elision of mixed-race people, the current rise in multiraciality signals, for
some, a utopian progression toward racelessness. According to this logic, the ideal is for all
of us to eventually become one brown race” (3).
This utopian vision of multiraciality is what Rainer Spencer, in “Beyond
Pathology and Cheerleading: Insurgency, Dissolution, and Complicity in the
Multiracial Idea,” calls the “cheerleading trope.” This trope is defined by the idea that
multiracials “represent the personal embodiment of racial love and harmony,”
where they are “themselves proffered as the solution to centuries of racial
discord” (106). In this championing, or
cheerleading, multiracials become objectified, and sometimes commodified,
“reducing their worth to the racial value of their parent’s sex act” (Rainer
107). So, while True Blood’s own
obsession with blood purity critiques the pluralist view of multiracials as
inhuman, objects of fear and contamination, the show also critiques the
objectification, inherent in the championing of multiraciality in a melting-pot
or post-race ideology.
In
alignment with this “cheerleading trope,” the vampires in True Blood are
literally desired for their blood, which holds unique qualities that benefit
the human race. In the first episode,
“Strange Love,” a local couple, the Ratrays, are shown attacking Bill in the
woods. They have him hooked up to an IV
line and are draining his blood because “V juice,” we learn later in the show,
is a drug similar to ecstasy. The
Ratrays desire for the blood as a drug, demonstrates how the vampire blood is
already being commodified and sold for profit within the show. Sookie comes to Bill’s rescue, scaring off
the Ratrays. In the subsequent episode,
“The First Taste,” Sookie is beaten by the Ratrays for interfering with their
collection of the vampire blood. After
being rescued from the beating by Bill, Sookie is shown almost lifeless—passed
out, bruised, and bloody. When she comes
to, Bill tells her to drink his blood.
At first she is hesitant (she fears it’ll make her a vampire), but Bill
forces her to take his blood. Within a few moments, Sookie says, “Wow. I feel completely healed.” Bill says, “You are.” Sookie asks Bill if human doctors know that
“V juice can do this?” Bill responds, “No.
We want to keep it that way.” In
this second scene concerning vampire blood, where Sookie quickly heals from
drinking the blood, we see the real power and potential of the vampire blood
that goes beyond recreational drug usage; the blood is as a healer and savior.
Bill’s desire to keep the properties of his blood a secret from the mainstream
shows a desire to keep the blood itself from becoming completely objectified
and/or commodified. If the doctors found out about the blood’s potential, the
vampires would be completely reduced to their blood and its power. Since the
blood is an amalgamation, the vampire a multiracial, the cheerleading trope of
multiraciality and its pitfalls become clear. This reduction of the vampire to
a blood object with healing powers is reminiscent of the ways in which
multiracials themselves are championed for “healing” and/or “curing” racial
discord. This objectification and commodification of the mixed blood renders
the body that contains it completely detached from its identity; the mixed body
becomes a thing of racial value only in its power to dissolve racial discord
and its symbolism of that racial harmony.
In this way, True Blood highlights the dangers of championing
multiraciality within a melting-pot pluralist and post-race ideology where
actual racial injustices and inequalities become glossed over as multiracials
symbolize racial harmony.
Although
the contemporary stories of vampires are no longer overtly concerned with the
white versus non-white dichotomy typified by Dracula, these contemporary
vampire tales are still extremely race conscious. In a popular culture where audiences are
bombarded with images of a “multicultural society that has finally transcended
the problem of race,” these new vampire tales have had to adopt the ways in
which they approach race relations (Gallagher 109). As Tara pointedly states in a later episode,
“Escape From the Dragon House,” “People think just cause we got vampires out in
the open now race isn’t an issue no more.”
Like Tara’s comment suggests about vampires, many people in our contemporary
society believe that race is no longer an issue: on the one hand, this belief
is based on the idea that there are multiracials “out in the open” who embody
the ideals of so-called color-blindness; and, on the other hand, this belief
comes from the contemporary model of multicultural pluralism that gives a false
notion of racial equality while maintaining the public and civic
distinctiveness of the fictive whole, sub-species of races. By presenting a multicultural society and
victim pool in Bon Temps, aligning the vampire with multiraciality, and showing
how multiracials are both feared and championed, True Blood works to
critique the post-race ideology promoted through melting-pot multiculturalism
and shows the ways in which racist fantasies (especially concerning the
multiracial) still pervade our popular consciousness. Like Tara, True Blood
critiques the post-race position in our culture: that the existence of
multiracials does not equate racial justice, equality, or harmony. In fact, True
Blood highlights new issues concerning race in our multicultural
society—racial essentialism in particular—that are still of great concern if we
are to truly attempt to move towards a post-race society that does not simply
elide the problems of racial equity, but works to challenge them.
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